[ Hemija
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29 Mart, 2011 21:39
- Alkoholi su organska kiseonična jedinjenja.
- Molekul alkohola sačinjvaju atomi ugljenika, vodonika i kiseonika.
- Alkoholi u svojim molekulima imaju atom kiseonika koji je povezan sa atomom vodonika i grade OH grupu:
CH3-OH metanol
- OH grupa ili hidroksidna grupa, sastavni je deo molekula alkohola. Kod alkohola hidroksilna grupa je uvek vezana za zasićen ugljenikov atom.
CH3-CH2-OH OH-hidroksilna grupa
- Funkciona grupa je atomska grupa, ili, atom, koja se po sastavu razlikuje od ugljovodoničnog ostatka u molekulu organskog jedinjenja. Kod alkohola, to je hidroksilna grupa.
- U zavisnosti od broja hidroksilnih grupa, alkoholi mogu biti:
- monohidroksilni (jedna hidroksilna grupa)
- polihidroksilni (dve ili više hidroksilnih grupa)
- Zasićeni monohiidroksilni alkoholi u svojim molekulima imaju hidroksilnu grupu vezanu za alkil grupu, tako da je njihova opšta formula:
CnH2n+1OH
- Nazivi monohidrosilnih alkohola izvode se tako što se na ime odgovarajućeg alkana doda nastavak -ol.
- Alkoholi koji imaju više od tri ugljenikova atoma u nazivu imaju i broj koji označava položaj hidroksilne grupe, a označavanje ugljenikovih atoma u najdužem nizu počinje sa onog kraja kome je bliža hidroksilna grupa ili račvanje.
- Monohidroksilni alkoholi se međusobno razlikuju na osnovu vrste ugljenikovog atoma za koji je vezana hidroksilna grupa.
- Vrsta ugljenikovog atoma prema načinu međusobnog vezivanja određuje se na osnovu broja drugih atoma ugljenika direktno vezanih za dati atom:
- primarni - kada je C atom vezan samo za jedan drugi atom ugljenika,označava se sa 1°
- sekundarni - kada je atom vezan za dva druga C atoma, označava se sa 2°
- tercijalni - kada je atom vezan za tri druga C atoma, označava se sa 3°
i tako redom;
- Ukoliko je OH grupa u nekom alkoholu vezana za primarni ugljenikov atom, taj alkohol je onda primarni alkohol, sekundarni ako je vezana za sekundarni C atom, tercijalni ako je vezana za tercijalni C atom
- Broj hidroksilnih grupa u alkoholu se označava prefiksima di-, tri- itd, koji se dodaju na naziv tog alkohola.
- Etanol je monohidroksilni alkohol sa najširom upotrebom. Koristi se kao dezinfekciono sredstvo, ratvarač, gorivo i sastojak alkoholnih pića.
- Metanol je najjednostavniji alkohol, otrovan je i pri malim koncentracijama izaziva privremeno ili trajno slepilo, a pri većem može dovesti do smrti. Koristi se kao sirovina za proizvodnju plastike i metanske kiseline, kao rastvarač boja i lakova i kao gorivo.
- Glicerol (etilen-glikol) je otrovan. Koristi se kao antifriz za motorna vozila, u proizvodnji kozmetičkih preparata, lekova i eksploziva. Takođe, deo molekula glicerola sastavni je deo ćelijske membrane.
Prema smeštaju hidroksilne grupe alkohole delimo na:
- primarne (R-CH2OH),
- sekundarne (R2CH-OH) i
- tercijarne (R3-C-OH).
25/09/2025, 11:38
The Heart Of The Internet
Long term side effects CJC-1295/Ipamorelin
CJC‑1295, a growth‑hormone‑releasing‑analogue (GHRLA), and Ipamorelin, a selective growth‑hormone‑releasing peptide (GHRP), are often combined to increase circulating growth‑hormone (GH) levels without the wetting
of appetite or other non‑selective side effects. In the short‑term,
many users report increased energy, improved recovery and clearer skin. However,
sustained use over months or years can expose the body to
chronic hormonal shifts that raise concerns in several physiological domains.
Hormonal imbalance
Continuous stimulation of the pituitary to produce GH can alter the endogenous
secretory rhythm. Several studies have shown that chronic use
may blunt the natural pulsatile release of GH and, paradoxically,
suppress the baseline secretion level. Once the supplement is
discontinued, this suppression may take weeks to recover,
leaving users in a low‑GH state that can lead to fatigue,
loss of lean muscle mass and diminished bone density.
Insulin sensitivity and metabolic effects
GH is a counter‑regulatory hormone: it activates hepatic glucose production and antagonizes insulin action. In populations with insulin resistance,
prolonged GH delivery is linked to worsened glucose tolerance.
Clinical trials have documented elevated fasting glucose and glycated hemoglobin in patients on long‑term
GHRLAs, prompting concerns about progression to
type 2 diabetes, especially in older adults or those with pre‑existing metabolic disorders.
Edema and fluid retention
The combination of CJC‑1295 and Ipamorelin has been associated with a mild to moderate
tendency for fluid retention, resulting in peripheral edema or subtle swelling around the face and limbs.
In individuals with cardiac comorbidities, this effect can aggravate dyspnea or precipitate
congestive heart failure. Monitoring body weight,
orthostatic blood pressure and ultrasound of the lower extremities
can help detect early signs of fluid overload.
Gonadal effects
GH stimulates testosterone production in men and estradiol in women. Sustained augmentation may lead to transient hypogonadism once the supplement is
stopped, manifested as decreased libido, reduced sperm count or
menstrual irregularities. Hormonal panels are advisable for patients
using the combination for periods longer than six months.
Growth‑related concerns
Because CJC‑1295 induces IGF‑1 production, chronic
elevation of IGF‑1, a mitogenic hormone, could theoretically increase the
risk of neoplastic proliferation. Although evidence in humans remains limited,
long‑term surveillance is recommended for individuals
with a history of cancer or pre‑neoplastic lesions.
Cardiovascular and cardiac stress
Chronic GH and IGF‑1 exposure can influence cardiac muscle growth and extracellular matrix remodeling,
potentially leading to eccentric cardiomyopathy or fibrosis if left unchecked.
Framingham risk scores and echocardiography can help monitor heart function in prolonged users.
Regulatory and quality control issues
Given that many products on the market are supplied without
FDA approval, users often receive varying purities and dosages.
Chemically impure or contaminated preparations may carry additional risks, including unknown impurities that could elicit toxic effects or mutate the expected safety
profile.
---
Top Posts
"Optimizing Long‑Term Use of GHRLAs: A Practical Guide"
This post discusses dosage schedules that minimize hormonal rebound and recommends rotating GHRLAs with
natural peaking days to support endocrine homeostasis.
"Metabolic Impact of Growth Hormone Peptides: What the Research Says"
A comprehensive review of clinical studies assessing glucose tolerance, insulin resistance, and lipid profiles in chronic users.
"Managing Edema in Growth Hormone Therapy"
Features patient anecdotes and medical advice on reducing fluid retention, including dietary sodium restriction and diuretic protocols.
"From Bench to Bedside: The Hormonal Feedback Loops of CJC‑1295"
An in‑depth exploration of pituitary‑hypothalamic‑growth axis
regulation and how exogenous peptides influence the natural
cycle.
"Cardiovascular Surveillance for Long‑Term Growth Hormone Supplementation"
Highlights the importance of regular echocardiograms, ECGs, and biomarker panels for early detection of cardiac changes.
"Navigating the Legal Landscape of Growth Hormone Peptides"
Provides up‑to‑date information on regulations, FDA status, and
how to safely source peptides with verified purity and
traceability.
"Post‑Supplement Recovery: Re‑establishing Endogenous Hormone Balance"
Guides on tapering schedules, nutritional support, and exercise
regimens to help the body return to normal endocrine function.
"Growth Hormone Peptides in Reproductive Health"
Examines the effects of prolonged GH exposure on male fertility and female menstrual cycles,
along with potential interventions.
"IGF‑1 and Cancer Risk: Evaluating the Evidence"
A nuanced discussion of epidemiologic data linking chronic IGF‑1 elevation to neoplastic processes.
"Personal Stories: Life After Growth Hormone Therapy"
Real‑world testimonies from individuals who have ceased use,
shedding light on withdrawal symptoms, physical
adaptation, and psychological shifts.
These posts collectively offer a balanced perspective
on how best to harness the benefits of CJC‑1295
and Ipamorelin while mitigating the risks associated with long‑term use.
04/04/2012, 18:33
napisati jednu racionalnu formulu trohidroksilnog alkohola
28/02/2012, 17:35
napisi neke sekundarne alkohole?